Using Lichen Chemistry to Assess Airborne Tungsten and Cobalt in Fallon, Nevada

This paper describes the use of lichen chemistry to assess airborne tungsten and cobalt in Fallon, Nevada, where a cluster of childhood leukemia has been on going since 1997. Lichens and their rock substrates were collected from Rattlesnake Hill within Fallon as well as from four different rock outcrops located north, east, south, and west of Fallon and at least 20 km away from the town center. In the lichens themselves, W and Co are significantly higher within Fallon than in the combined control site outside of Fallon. In the rock substrates of the lichens, no differences exist in W and Co. The W and Co differences in lichens cannot be attributed to substrate geochemistry. Fallon is distinctive in west central Nevada for high airborne W and Co, and given its cluster of childhood leukemia, it stands to reason that additional biomedical research is in order to test directly the leukogenicity of combined airborne W and Co.     

Soil sampling and analysis for volatile organic compounds

Concerns over data quality have raised many questions related to sampling soils for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This paper was prepared in response to some of these questions and concerns expressed by Remedial Project Managers (RPMs) and On-Scene Coordinators (OSCs). The following questions are frequently asked:

1. Is there a specific device suggested for sampling soils for VOCs?
2. Are there significant losses of VOCs when transferring a soil sample from a sampling device (e.g., split spoon) into the sample container?
3. What is the best method for getting the sample from the split spoon (or other device) into the sample container?
4. Are there smaller devices such as subcore samplers available for collecting aliquots from the larger core and efficiently transferring the sample into the sample container?
5. Are certain containers better than others for shipping and storing soil samples for VOC analysis?
6. Are there any reliable preservation procedures for reducing VOC losses from soil samples and for extending holding times?

Guidance is provided for selecting the most effective sampling device for collecting samples from soil matrices. The techniques for sample collection, sample handling, containerizing, shipment, and storage described in this paper reduce VOC losses and generally provide more representative samples for volatile organic analyses (VOA) than techniques in current use. For a discussion on the proper use of sampling equipment the reader should refer to other sources (Acker, 1974; U.S. EPA, 1983; U.S. EPA, 1986a). Soil, as referred to in this report, encompasses the mass (surface and subsurface) of unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and loose material lying above solid rock. Further, a distinction must be made as to what fraction of the unconsolidated material is soil and what fraction is not. The soil component here is defined as all mineral and naturally occurring organic material that is 2 mm or less in size. This is the size normally used to differentiate between soils (consisting of sands, silts, and clays) and gravels. Although numerous sampling situations may be encountered, this paper focuses on three broad categories of sites that might be sampled for VOCs:

1. Open test pit or trench.
2. Surface soils (<5 ft in depth).
3. Subsurface soils (>5 ft in depth).

     

Economic and Spatial Impacts of an Existing Reserve Network on Future Augmentation

An optimization model for land reservation was developed that explicitly selects parcels in the most compact or contiguous manner possible while meeting habitat requirements and a budget limitation. The model was used to compare the effects of an existing reserve network on future parcel spatial locations and total cost. Using habitat and land value data from Josephine County, Oregon, it was found that a system of existing reserves created by various policies and overseen by different agencies can decrease future reserve compactness and contiguity, and increase total cost. This work suggests that coordinated planning can result in more efficient conservation efforts for less cost.     

Energy use and transport correlation linking personal and travel related energy uses to the urban structure

This paper considers relationships between sustainability objectives, transport, spatial design of the built environment and rational use of energy. Conventional transport modelling, housing supply and energy assessment tools are drawn together to provide a common platform for appraisal of city-wide energy use by stationary and mobile sources. The paper outlines methodologies developed for the city of Belfast, Northern Ireland. The paper concludes by briefly reviewing the effect in terms of mobile and stationary energy consumption and travel behaviour of implementing sustainable policy measures in current and future years within the study area.     

Congestion at Recreation Areas: Empirical Evidence on Perceptions, Mitigating Behaviour and Management Preferences

Economists have tried to estimate the demand for recreation under conditions of congestion, struggling especially with a model that uses observed rather than stated behaviour to obtain results. This paper reports statistical analyses of data on perceptions, mitigating behaviour and management preferences in order to highlight the difficulties related to empirical analysis of congestion. We offer evidence that may be of assistance to those wishing to construct measures of congestion for use in an observed behaviour model. The results may also be useful to recreation area managers who can implement a quota or permit system or change site entry or access fees to control access to the site they manage.     

The importance of small urbanized watersheds to pollutant loading in a large oligotrophic subalpine lake of the western USA

Urban land use has been implicated as a major contributor of nonpoint source pollution in aquatic systems. Through increased nonpoint delivery of pollutants, including constituents found in stormwater, Lake Tahoe is undergoing a marked decline in its transparency, primarily due to increasing production of algae from enhanced nutrient loading and delivery of fine particles to the lake from the watershed. In response to these findings, a regional restoration effort is underway to improve basin watersheds and the water quality in Lake Tahoe. In this study, stormwater autosamplers were used to collect flow-weighted composite samples that characterized event mean concentrations for event and nonevent conditions within a small, urbanized watershed in the Tahoe basin. An event-specified constant-concentration water quality model was then applied to the event mean concentration and continuous streamflow data to estimate pollutant loads for nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, orthophosphate, and suspended sediment. These data were compared with previously reported load estimates from 10 primary monitored streams in larger watersheds of the Tahoe basin. Results from a linear regression analysis demonstrate strong and significant relationships between watershed impervious area and pollutant loadings from Lake Tahoe watersheds. These small, urbanized watersheds and intervening zones, which only comprise 10 % of the total Lake Tahoe drainage area, include a significant portion of the total Lake Tahoe impervious area. The findings of this study suggest that small, urbanized watersheds and intervening zones are disproportionately important contributors of nonpoint source pollution, including nutrients and suspended particles.     

Evaluation of air quality indicators in Alberta,Canada – An international perspective

There has been an increase in oil sands development in northern Alberta, Canada and an overall increase in economic activity in the province in recent years. An evaluation of the state of air quality was conducted in four Alberta locations – urban centers of Calgary and Edmonton, and smaller communities of Fort McKay and Fort McMurray in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region (AOSR). Concentration trends, diurnal hourly and monthly average concentration profiles, and exceedances of provincial, national and international air quality guidelines were assessed for several criteria air pollutants over the period 1998 to 2014. Two methods were used to evaluate trends. Parametric analysis of annual median 1 h concentrations and non-parametric analysis of annual geometric mean 1 h concentrations showed consistent decreasing trends for NO₂ and SO₂ (< 1 ppb per year), CO (< 0.1 ppm per year) at all stations, decreasing for THC (< 0.1 ppm per year) and increasing for O₃ (≤ 0.52 ppb per year) at most stations and unchanged for PM_2.5 at all stations in Edmonton and Calgary over a 17-year period. Little consistency in trends was observed among the methods for the same air pollutants other than for THC (increasing in Fort McKay < 0.1 ppm per year and no trend in Fort McMurray), PM_2.5 in Fort McKay and Fort McMurray (no trend) and CO (decreasing < 0.1 ppm per year in Fort McMurray) over the same period. Levels of air quality indicators at the four locations were compared with other Canadian and international urban areas to judge the current state of air quality. Median and annual average concentrations for Alberta locations tended to be the smallest in Fort McKay and Fort McMurray. Other than for PM_2.5, Calgary and Edmonton tended to have median and annual average concentrations comparable to and/or below that of larger populated Canadian and U.S. cities, depending upon the air pollutant.     

A new economic instrument for financing accelerated landfill aftercare

The key aspects of landfill operation that remain unresolved are the extended timescale and uncertain funding of the post-closure period. This paper reviews the topic and proposes an economic instrument to resolve the unsustainable nature of the current situation. Unsustainability arises from the sluggish degradation of organic material and also the slow flushing of potential pollutants that is exacerbated by low-permeability capping. A landfill tax or aftercare provision rebate is proposed as an economic instrument to encourage operators to actively advance the stabilization of landfilled waste. The rebate could be accommodated within existing regulatory and tax regimes and would be paid for: (i) every tonne of nitrogen (or other agreed leachate marker) whose removal is advanced via the accelerated production and extraction of leachate; (ii) every tonne of non-commercially viable carbon removed via landfill gas collection and treatment. The rebates would be set at a level that would make it financially attractive to operators and would encourage measures such as leachate recirculation, in situ aeration, and enhanced flushing. Illustrative calculations suggest that a maximum rebate of up to ～€50/tonne MSW would provide an adequate incentive.     

Seasonal variations of monocarbonyl and dicarbonyl in urban and sub-urban sites of Xi’an,China

Seventeen airborne carbonyls including monocarbonyls and dicarbonyls were determined in urban and sub-urban sites of Xi’an, China in three seasons in 2010. In winter, acetone was the most abundant carbonyl in the urban site due to usage of organic solvents in constructions and laboratories and its slower atmospheric removal mechanisms by photolysis and reaction with hydroxyl radical than those of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde. In the sub-urban site, acetaldehyde was the most abundant carbonyl, followed by formaldehyde and acetone. During summer, however, formaldehyde was the most dominant carbonyl in both sites. The photooxidations of a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) yielded much more formaldehyde than other carbonyls under high solar radiation and temperature. In the urban site, the average concentrations of dicarbonyls (i.e., glyoxal and methyglyoxal) in spring and summer were higher than that in winter. Transformation of aromatic VOCs emitted from fuel evaporation leads to the formation of 1,2-dicarbonyls. A reverse trend was observed in sub-urban sites, as explained by the relatively low abundances and accumulations of VOC precursors in the rural atmosphere during warm seasons. Moreover, cumulative cancer risk based on measured outdoor carbonyls (formaldehyde and acetaldehyde) in Xi’an Jiaotong University and Heihe was estimated (8.82?×?10^?5 and 4.96?×?10^?5, respectively). This study provides a clear map on the abundances of carbonyls and their source interpretation in the largest and the most economic city in Northwestern China.     

Landfill reduction experience in The Netherlands

Modern waste legislation aims at resource efficiency and landfill reduction. This paper analyses more than 20 years of landfill reduction in the Netherlands. The combination of landfill regulations, landfill tax and landfill bans resulted in the desired landfill reduction, but also had negative effects. A fierce competition developed over the remaining waste to be landfilled. In 2013 the Dutch landfill industry generated €40 million of annual revenue, had €58 million annual costs and therefore incurred an annual loss of €18 million. It is not an attractive option to prematurely end business. There is a risk that Dutch landfill operators will not be able to fulfil the financial obligations for closure and aftercare. Contrary to the polluter pays principle the burden may end up with society. EU regulations prohibiting export of waste for disposal are in place. Strong differentials in landfill tax rate between nations have nevertheless resulted in transboundary shipment of waste and in non-compliance with the self-sufficiency and proximity principles. During the transformation from a disposal society to a recycling society, it is important to carefully plan required capacity and to guide the reorganisation of the landfill sector. At some point, it is no longer profitable to provide landfill services. It may be necessary for public organisations or the state to take responsibility for the continued operation of a ‘safety net’ in waste management. Regulations have created a financial incentive to pass on the burden of monitoring and controlling the impact of waste to future generations. To prevent this, it is necessary to revise regulations on aftercare and create incentives to actively stabilise landfills.